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(tag removed) merge|International Military Tribunal for the Far East|date=May 2004}}

From May 3, 1946 to November 12, 1948, ll Japanese Class A war criminals were tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) in Tokyo. The prosecution team was made up of justices from eleven Allied nations: Australia, Canada, China, France, United Kingdom, India, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Philippines, the Soviet Union, and the United States. The Tokyo trial lasted two and a half years, from May 1946 to November 1948. Other war criminals were tried in the respective victim countries. War crime trials were held at ten different locations in China.

The Indictment

Of the 80 Class A war criminal suspects detained in the Sugamo prison after 1945, 28 men were brought to trial before the IMTFE. The accused included nine civilians and nineteen professional military men:

Four former premiers: Hiranuma, Hirota, Koiso, Tojo;
Three former foreign ministers: Matsuoka, Shigemitsu, Togo
Four former war ministers: Araki, Hata, Itagaki, Minami
Two former navy ministers: Nagano, Shimada
Six former generals: Doihara, Kimura, Matsui, Muto, Sato, Umezu
Two former ambassadors: Oshima, Shiratori
Three former economic and financial leaders: Hoshino, Kaya, Suzuki
One imperial adviser: Kido
One radical theorist: Okawa
One admiral: Oka
One colonel: Hashimoto

The indictment accused the defendants of promoting a scheme of conquest that "contemplated and carried out ... murdering, maiming and ill-treating prisoners of war (and) civilian internees ... forcing them to labor under inhumane conditions ... plundering public and private property, wantonly destroying cities, towns and villages beyond any justification of military necessity; (perpetrating) mass murder, rape, pillage, brigandage, torture and other barbaric cruelties upon the helpless civilian population of the over-run countries."

Joseph Keenan, the chief prosecutor representing the United States at the trial, issued a press statement along with the indictment: "war and treaty-breakers should be stripped of the glamour of national heroes and exposed as what they really are --- plain, ordinary murderers."

War Crimes In China Revealed

The Nanking Massacre

Numerous eye-witness accounts of the Nanking Massacre were provided by Chinese civilian survivors and western nationals living in Nanking at the time. The accounts included gruesome details of the Nanking Massacre. Thousands of innocent civilians were buried alive, used as targets for bayonet practice, shot in large groups and thrown into the pYangtze River. Rampant rapes (and gang rapes) of women ranging from age seven to over seventy were reported. The international community estimated that within the six weeks of the Massacre, 20,000 women were raped, many of them subsequently murdered or mutilated; and over 300,000 people were killed, often with the most inhumane brutality.

Dr. Robert Wilson, a surgeon who was born and raised in Nanking and educated at Princeton and Harvard Medical School, testified that beginning with December 13, "the hospital filled up and was kept full to overflowing" during the next six weeks. The patients usually bore bayonet or bullet wounds; many of the women patients had been sexually molested.

The international community had filed many protests to the Japanese Embassy. Bates, an American professor of history at the University of Nanking during the Japanese occupation, provided evidence that the protests were forwarded to Tokyo and were discussed in great detail between Japanese officials and the U.S. ambassador in Tokyo.

Brackman (reporter at the trial and author of the book "The Other Nuremberg") commented: "The Rape of Nanking was not the kind of isolated incident common to all wars. It was deliberate. It was policy. It was known in Tokyo." Yet it was allowed to continue for over six weeks.

Unconventional warfare: Narcotics and Bacteriological warfare

Narcortics Trafficking

Japan's opium operations in China in the 30's and 40's was conducted with full approval from Tokyo as a state policy, under the directives of an official Japanese umbrella organization, the China Affairs Board. The Board was responsible for political, economic, and cultural affairs in occupied China. This organization was run by Prince Konoye, and the ministers of war, the navy, finance and foreign affairs of the time.

Japan's opium trafficking was designed to weaken the Chinese people's will to resist and to provide substantial revenues to finance Japanese military and economic aggression.

Bacteriological Warfare

Reference to the bacteriological warfare was only briefly mentioned during the trial. The assistant U.S. prosecutor David Sutton read the following statements: "The enemy's TAMA Detachment carried off their civilian captives to the medical laboratory, where the reactions to poisonous serums were tested.

This detachment was one of the most secret organizations. The number of persons slaughtered by this detachment cannot be ascertained." Surprisingly, the prosecutor did not pursue the subject, and hence was rejected as unsupported.

After the trial by the IMTFE, in December 25-30, 1949, the Soviets tried twelve former members of the TAMA detachment who were captured in Manchuria. The twelve were convicted of conducting experiments on living people.

In the February 23, 1950 issue of Izvestia, the Soviet government daily, the Soviets charged that in September 1946, the Soviet prosecutors had turned over to the U.S. prosecutor, the chief of the Allied counsel, hard evidence of Japan's experiments on bacteriological weapons.

In 1976, the Tokyo Broadcasting System confirmed the existence of the TAMA detachment. Five living members of the top-secret operation told a Japanese reporter that they had escaped indictment as war criminals in return for divulging their research to the U.S. authorities.

THE VERDICT

Two (Yosuke Matsuoka and Osami Nagano) of the twenty-eight defendants died of natural causes during the trial. One defendant (Shumei Okawa) had a mental breakdown on the first day of trial, was sent to a psychiatric ward and was released in 1948 a free man. The remaining twenty-five (25) were all found guilty, many of multiple counts. Seven (7) were sentenced to death by hanging, sixteen (16) to life imprisonment, and two (2) to lesser terms. All seven sentenced to death were found to be guilty of inciting or otherwise implicated in mass-scale atrocities, among other counts. Three of the sixteen sentenced to life imprisonment died between 1949 and 1950 in prison. The remaining thirteen (13) were paroled between 1954 and 1956, less than eight years in prison for their crimes against millions of people.

Two former ambassadors were sentenced to seven and twenty years in prison. One died two years later in prison. The other one, Shigemitsu, was paroled in 1950, and was appointed foreign minister in 1954.

SUMMARY OF THE VERDICT AND SENTENCE

Counts Accused	1	27	29	31	32	33	35	36	54	55	SENTANCE NOTE
G	G	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
DOIHARA	G	G	G	G	G	X	G	G	G	U	Death
HASHIMOTO	G	G	X	X	X	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1945
HATA	G	G	G	G	G	O	X	X	X	G	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
HIRANUMA	G	G	G	G	G	X	X	G	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
HIROTA	G	G	X	X	X	X	X	O	X	G	Death
HOSHINO	G	G	G	G	G	X	X	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
ITAGAKI	G	G	G	G	G	X	G	G	G	U	Death
KAYA	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
KIDO	G	G	G	G	G	X	X	X	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
KIMURA	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	O	G	G	Death
KOISO	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	X	X	G	Life Imp. Died 1950
MATSUI	X	X	X	X	X	O	X	X	X	G	Death
MINAMI	G	G	X	X	X	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1954
MUTO	G	G	G	G	G	X	O	X	G	G	Death
OKA	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1954
OSHIMA	G	X	X	X	X	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
SATO	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1956
SHIGEMITSU	X	G	G	G	G	G	X	O	X	G	7 years Paroled 1950 Appointed Foreign Minister 1954
SHIMADA	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	O	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
SHIRATORI	G	X	X	X	X	O	O	O	O	O	Life Imp. Died 1949
SUZUKI	G	G	G	G	G	O	X	X	X	X	Life Imp. Paroled 1955
TOGO	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	X	X	X	20 years Died 1948
TOJO	G	G	G	G	G	G	O	X	G	U	Death Enshrined as "martyr" at the Yasukuni Shrine in 1978
UMEZU	G	G	G	G	G	O	O	X	X	X	Life Imp. Died 1949

G: Guilty; X: Not Guilty; O: Blank; U: Other.

COUNTS OF INDICTMENT:

Count 1: as "leaders, organizers, instigators, or accomplices in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy .. to wage wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law."

Count 27: waging unprovoked war against China.

Count 29: waging aggressive war against the United States.

Count 31: waging aggressive war against the British Commonwealth.

Count 32: waging aggressive war against the Netherlands.

Count 33: waging aggressive war against France (Indochina).

Count 35 & 36: waging aggressive war against the USSR.

Count 54: "ordered, authorized, and permitted" inhumane treatment of Prisoners of War (POWs) and others.

Count 55: "deliberately and recklessly disregarded their duty" to take adequate steps to prevent atrocities.

SUMMARY OF CONVICTED CLASS A WAR CRIMINALS

Seven (7) sentenced to death:

Doihara, General Kenji (1883-1948). Commander, Kwantung Army, 1938-40; Supreme War Council, 1940-43; army commander in Singapore, 1944-45. Deeply involved in the army's drug trafficking in Manchuria. Later ran brutal POW and internee camps in Malaya, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. Convicted on counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 54.

Hirota, Baron Koki (1878-1948). Ambassador to the Soviet Union, 1928-31; foreign minister, 1933-36; premier, 1936-37. Was foreign minister during the Rape of Nanking and other atrocities perpetrated by the army. As premier, he led his cabinet in planning the invasions of Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands, in addition to continuing the undeclared war against China. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 55.

Itagaki, General Seishiro (1885-1948). Chief of staff, Kwantung Army, 1936-37; minister of war, 1938-39; chief, army general staff, 1939; commander in Korea, 1941; Supreme War Council, 1943; commander in Singapore, 1945. Troops under his command in China and elsewhere terrorized prisoners and civilians. Was responsible for prison camps in Java, Sumatra, Malaya, Borneo and elsewhere. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 54.

Kimura, General Heitaro (1888-1948). Chief of staff, Kwantung Army, 1940-41; vice minister of war, 1941-43; Supreme War Council, 1943; army commander in Burma, 1944-45. Helped plan the China and Pacific wars, including surprise attacks. Involved in the brutalization of the Allied POWs and was the field commander in Burma when civilian and POW slave labor built and died on the Siam-Burma Railway. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 54, 55.

Matsui, General Iwane (1878-1948). Personal appointee of the emperor to the Geneva Disarmament Conference, 1932-37; commander, China Expeditionary Force, 1937-38. Troops under his overall command were responsible for the Rape of Nanking in 1937 and other atrocities. He retired in 1938 and then ceased to play an active role in military affairs. Convicted on Count 55. He was one of 14 Class A war criminals who were secretly enshrined as "matyrs" at the Yasukuni Shrine, which is dedicated to Japan's war dead and is Japan's most revered Shinto temple.

Muto, General Akira (1892-1948). Vice chief of staff, China Expeditionary Force, 1937; director, military Affairs Bureau, 1939-42; army commander in Sumatra, 1942-43; army chief of staff in the Philippines, 1944-45. Troops under his command participated in both the Rape of Nanking and the Rape of Manila. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 54, 55.

Tojo, General Hideki (1884-1948). Chief, Manchurian secret police, 1935; councillor, Manchurian Affairs Bureau, 1936; chief of staff, Kwantung Army, 1937-38; vice minister of war, 1938; minister of war 1940-44; premier, 1941-44. Considered the arch-criminal of the Pacific War. Tojo assumed full responsibility for all the actions of his government and the military during the war. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 54.

Sixteen (16) sentenced to life imprisonment:

Araki, General Sadao (1877-1966). Minister of war, 1931-34; Supreme War Council, 1934-36; minister of education 1938-39; senior adviser to the cabinet, 1939-40. An early advocate of Japanese military expansionism. While education minister, he restructured the Japanese school system along military lines. Convicted on Counts 1 and 27. Paroled in 1955.

Hashimoto, Colonel Kingoro (1890-1957). Held various commands, including that of an artillery regiment during the Rape of Nanking in 1937. Played a major role in staging the Mukden Incident, which eventually led to war with China. Author of political books of racist propaganda, he was important in mobilizing Japanese public opinion behind the Pacific War. Convicted on Counts 1 and 27. Paroled in 1954.

Hata, Field Marshal Shunroku (1879-1962). Supreme War Council, 1937; commander, China Expeditionary Force, 1938, 1941-44; minister of war, 1939-40. One of the militarists who planned the invasion of China in the 1930s. He was in overall command of troops who perpetrated countless atrocities against Chinese civilians. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 55. Paroled in 1954.

Hiranuma, Baron Kiichiro (1867-1952). Privy Council, 1924-39; founder and president, Kokuhonsha (right-wing patriotic society), 1926-28; premier, 1938; minister of home affairs, 1940; minister without portfolio, 1940-41; president, Privy Council, 1945. Convicted on crimes 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 36.

Hoshino, Naoki (1892-1978). Chief of financial affairs, Manchukuo (Manchuria), 1932-34; director of general affairs (chief civilian officer), Manchukuo, 1936; minister without portfolio, 1940-41; chief cabinet secretary, 1941-44. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1955.

Kaya, Okinori (1889-1977). Minister of finance, 1937-38, 1941-44; president, North China Development Company, 1939-41. An early advocate of selling narcotics to the Chinese to finance the expenses of the occupation forces. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1955.

Kido, Marquis Koichi (1889-1977). Chief secretary to the lord keeper of the privy seal, 1930-37; minister of education, 1937; minister of welfare, 1938; minister of home affairs, 1939; lord keeper of the privy seal 1940-45. Was Emperor Hirohito's closest adviser during the most critical periods of the wars with China and the Allies. His secret diary, which he kept during all of his time at or near the seat of power, was the prosecution's bible during much of the Tokyo trial. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1955.

Koiso, General Kuniaki (1880-1950). Vice minister of war, 1932; chief of staff, Kwantung Army, 1932-34; army commander in Korea, 1935-38; minister of overseas affairs, 1939; governor-general, Korea, 1942-44; premier 1944-45. Was known among the Korean population as "the Tiger of Korea" because of his brutality. As premier, he was aware of POW death camps. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 55.

Minami, General Jiro (1874-1955). Minister of war, 1931; Supreme War Council, 1931-34; commander, Kwantung Army, 1934-36; governor-general, Korea, 1936-42; privy Council, 1942-45. An early leader of the army clique that controlled Japan in the 1930s and 1940s. Ruled Japan's Korean colony with an iron fist. Convicted on Counts 1 and 27. Paroled in 1945.

Oka, Admiral Takasumi (1890-1973). Chief, Naval Affairs Bureau, 1940-44; vice minister of the navy, 1944. An important participant in planning the surprise attacks perpetrated by Japanese naval forces during the second week in December 1941. Also administered some POW and civilian to shoot survivors of torpedoed Allied ships. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1954.

Oshima, General Hiroshi (1886-1975). Military attache in Germany, 1934-38; ambassador to Germany, 1938-39, 1941-45. Helped forge the Axis Pact with Germany and Italy and was an intimate of Hilter, Himmler, Goring, and Ribbentrop. Convicted on Count 1. Paroled in 1955.

Sato, General Kenryo (1895-1975). Section head, then chief, Military Affairs Bureau, 1942-44; assistant chief of staff, China Expeditionary Force, 1944; army commander in Indochina, 1945. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1956.

Shimada, Admiral Shigetaro (1883-1976). Vice chief of naval staff, 1935-37; commander, China Fleet, 1940; navy minister, 1941-44; Supreme War Council, 1944. Authorized the naval surprise attacks in December 1941. Naval units under his overall command massacred Allied POWs, transported prisoners and civilian internees aboard hellships, and killed any surviving crew members of torpedoed Allied ships. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1955.

Shiratori, Toshio (1887-1949). Director, Information Bureau, Foreign Ministry, 1929-33; ambassador to Italy, 1938-40; adviser tot the foreign minister, 1940. A supporter of military expansionism, he favored an alliance among Germany, Italy the Soviet Union and Japan to dominate the world. Convicted on Count 1.

Suzuki, General Teiichi (1888- ). chief, China Affairs Bureau, 1938-41; president, Cabinet Planning Board, and minister without portfolio, 1941-43; adviser to the cabinet, 1943-44. An early and active supporter of militarism. Involved in Japan's drug trafficking in China and approved the use of POWs and civilians as slave laborers. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Paroled in 1955.

Umezu, General Yoshijiro (1882-1949). Section chief, general staff, 1931-34; commander, China Expeditionary Force, 1934; vice minister of war, 1939-44; army chief of staff, 1944-45. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32.

Two sentenced to lesser terms:

Shigemitsu, Mamoru (1887-1957). Ambassador to China, 1931-32; vice minister of foreign affairs, 1933-36; ambassador to the Soviet Union, 1936-38; ambassador to United Kingdom, 1938-41; foreign minister, 1943-45. He and General Umezu signed the instrument of surrender in 1945. Convicted on Counts 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 55. Sentenced to seven years in prison. Paroled in 1950, he reentered the political arena and was appointed foreign minister in 1954.

Togo, General Hideki (1884-1948). Ambassador to Germany, 1937; ambassador to the Soviet Union, 1938; foreign minister, 1941-42, 1945. Convicted on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32. Sentenced to twenty years in prison.

Source: New Jersey Hong Kong Network (1990). http://cnd.org/mirror/nanjing/NMTT.html, Accessed April 16, 2004.