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Projection (mathematics)

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In mathematics, a projection is an idempotent mapping of a set (or other mathematical structure) into a subset (or sub-structure). In this case, idempotent means that projecting twice is the same as projecting once. The restriction to a subspace of a projection is also called a projection, even if the idempotence property is lost. An everyday example of a projection is the casting of shadows onto a plane (sheet of paper): the projection of a point is its shadow on the sheet of paper, and the projection (shadow) of a point on the sheet of paper is that point itself (idempotency). The shadow of a three-dimensional sphere is a disk. Originally, the notion of projection was introduced in Euclidean geometry to denote the projection of the three-dimensional Euclidean space onto a plane in it, like the shadow example. The two main projections of this kind are:

  • The projection from a point onto a plane or central projection: If C is a point, called the center of projection, then the projection of a point P different from C onto a plane that does not contain C is the intersection of the line CP with the plane. The points P such that the line CP is parallel to the plane does not have any image by the projection, but one often says that they project to a point at infinity of the plane (see Projective geometry for a formalization of this terminology). The projection of the point C itself is not defined.
  • The projection parallel to a direction D, onto a plane or parallel projection: The image of a point P is the intersection of the plane with the line parallel to D passing through P. See Affine space § Projection for an accurate definition, generalized to any dimension.[citation needed]

The concept of projection in mathematics is a very old one, and most likely has its roots in the phenomenon of the shadows cast by real-world objects on the ground. This rudimentary idea was refined and abstracted, first in a geometric context and later in other branches of mathematics. Over time different versions of the concept developed, but today, in a sufficiently abstract setting, we can unify these variations.[citation needed]

In cartography, a map projection is a map of a part of the surface of the Earth onto a plane, which, in some cases, but not always, is the restriction of a projection in the above meaning. The 3D projections are also at the basis of the theory of perspective.[citation needed]

The need for unifying the two kinds of projections and of defining the image by a central projection of any point different of the center of projection are at the origin of projective geometry.

Definition

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The commutativity of this diagram is the universality of the projection π, for any map f and set X.

Generally, a mapping where the domain and codomain are the same set (or mathematical structure) is a projection if the mapping is idempotent, which means that a projection is equal to its composition with itself. A projection may also refer to a mapping which has a right inverse. Both notions are strongly related, as follows. Let p be an idempotent mapping from a set A into itself (thus pp = p) and B = p(A) be the image of p. If we denote by π the map p viewed as a map from A onto B and by i the injection of B into A (so that p = iπ), then we have πi = IdB (so that π has a right inverse). Conversely, if π has a right inverse i, then πi = IdB implies that iπiπ = i ∘ IdBπ = iπ; that is, p = iπ is idempotent.[citation needed]

Applications

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The original notion of projection has been extended or generalized to various mathematical situations, frequently, but not always, related to geometry, for example:

References

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  1. ^ "Direct product - Encyclopedia of Mathematics". encyclopediaofmath.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  2. ^ Lee, John M. (2012). Introduction to Smooth Manifolds. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 218 (Second ed.). p. 606. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9982-5. ISBN 978-1-4419-9982-5. Exercise A.32. Suppose are topological spaces. Show that each projection is an open map.
  3. ^ Brown, Arlen; Pearcy, Carl (1994-12-16). An Introduction to Analysis. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-94369-5.
  4. ^ Alagic, Suad (2012-12-06). Relational Database Technology. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4612-4922-1.
  5. ^ Date, C. J. (2006-08-28). The Relational Database Dictionary: A Comprehensive Glossary of Relational Terms and Concepts, with Illustrative Examples. "O'Reilly Media, Inc.". ISBN 978-1-4493-9115-7.
  6. ^ "Relational Algebra". www.cs.rochester.edu. Archived from the original on 30 January 2004. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  7. ^ Sidoli, Nathan; Berggren, J. L. (2007). "The Arabic version of Ptolemy's Planisphere or Flattening the Surface of the Sphere: Text, Translation, Commentary" (PDF). Sciamvs. 8. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  8. ^ "Stereographic projection - Encyclopedia of Mathematics". encyclopediaofmath.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  9. ^ "Projection - Encyclopedia of Mathematics". encyclopediaofmath.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  10. ^ Roman, Steven (2007-09-20). Advanced Linear Algebra. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-72831-5.
  11. ^ "Retraction - Encyclopedia of Mathematics". encyclopediaofmath.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  12. ^ "Product of a family of objects in a category - Encyclopedia of Mathematics". encyclopediaofmath.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.

Further reading

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